Water Security and the Foundations of Livelihoods
Water is a fundamental resource for sustaining livelihoods, ecosystems, and biodiversity. Recognised as a human right by the African Union, access to safe and reliable water is central to both human wellbeing and environmental sustainability. Water security is therefore a key pillar of Agenda 2063, which recognises the importance of sustainable water management for economic development, food security, and ecological resilience across the continent.
However, climate change is intensifying pressures on water systems across Africa. Rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns are reducing water availability in many regions. In the Sahel, recurring droughts have significantly reduced water levels in the Lake Chad Basin, undermining the livelihoods of small-scale fishers, farmers, and pastoralists. As resources decline, competition over water and associated livelihoods has intensified, contributing to localised conflicts. At the AidEx Nairobi Summit in 2025, experts warned that climate-related water risks could increase dramatically in the coming decades, with Africa expected to experience a disproportionate share of these pressures. Currently, around 19 of Africa’s 54 countries are considered water-scarce, exposing approximately 500 million people to varying levels of water insecurity.
Localised Water Conflicts and Urban Pressures
Water-related tensions are increasingly emerging at the community and household level. In parts of East Africa, communities in countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia have experienced clashes over access to water resources, particularly in pastoral and drought-prone regions. Urbanisation is also placing additional strain on water systems. Rapid population growth in cities often accompanied by the expansion of informal settlements has outpaced the development and maintenance of water infrastructure. Many urban areas lack adequate systems to ensure reliable water supply and distribution.
As a result, household and community-level conflicts over water access are becoming more common. For example, cities such as Arua in Uganda and Lilongwe in Malawi have reported increasing tensions linked to water shortages. A 2021 study in Kahemba, Democratic Republic of Congo, found that 73% of surveyed households had experienced water-related conflicts, highlighting the growing pressure on limited water resources.
Interstate Tensions and Shared Water Resources
Beyond local disputes, water is also becoming an increasingly sensitive geopolitical issue. Transboundary rivers shared by multiple countries create complex governance challenges where upstream and downstream interests may conflict. One of the most prominent examples is the ongoing tension between Ethiopia and Egypt over Ethiopia’s Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Nile River. Egypt has expressed concern that Ethiopia’s control over upstream water flows could affect its long-standing dependence on the Nile for water security. Similarly, tensions have emerged between Namibia, Angola, and Botswana regarding the Okavango River system. While Namibia and Angola face growing upstream water extraction needs, Botswana relies heavily on the Okavango Delta for tourism and ecosystem health. These competing priorities highlight the delicate balance required in managing shared water systems.
Regional Frameworks and Governance Mechanisms
Several regional frameworks and initiatives have been developed to promote cooperation and reduce the risk of conflict over shared water resources. The Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) facilitates cooperation among eight riparian states, Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe supporting joint management and sustainable use of the Zambezi River Basin. Similarly, the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses provides a regional framework for cooperation on transboundary water management in Southern Africa. The protocol encourages equitable water use, information sharing, and joint management among member states.
At the continental level, the African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) plays an important role in coordinating water policy and strengthening water governance across Africa. AMCOW supports the implementation of Africa Water Vision 2025, which seeks to ensure equitable and sustainable water use to support socio-economic development. In addition, initiatives such as the Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) support large-scale water infrastructure projects, including dams, irrigation systems, and transboundary water management initiatives. These efforts are critical in addressing the infrastructure gaps that often exacerbate water scarcity and related tensions.
Strengthening Governance, Infrastructure, and Cooperation
Addressing water conflicts requires both immediate and long-term responses. In areas where tensions have escalated, conflict mediation and security interventions may be necessary to prevent further instability. However, sustainable solutions must address the deeper socio-economic and ecological drivers of water scarcity.
Strengthening water governance frameworks, infrastructure investment, and institutional capacity will be essential, particularly in regions facing severe water stress. Investments in water storage, treatment, and distribution systems can improve access to water for both rural and urban communities. Greater public–private cooperation and regional coordination will also be crucial. Collaborative approaches between governments, development partners, and the private sector can support improved water management, technological innovation, and sustainable infrastructure development.
At the same time, education and capacity-building around water conservation and water resource management are essential. Promoting water-efficient technologies, circular economy approaches to water reuse, and stronger local management systems can help reduce pressure on limited water supplies. Ensuring sustainable water governance will be critical not only for conflict prevention but also for safeguarding livelihoods, protecting ecosystems, and strengthening climate resilience across Africa.
Author: Kennedy Simango
Research Analyst
